GIS; Undervalued in Archaeology? Last Post 25 Apr 2008 09:00 PM by dianah. 42 Replies. | Sort: |
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dianah
New Member
Posts:12
 | | 25 Apr 2008 09:00 PM | | Hi
On the 10th January i posted a message as set out below. I was a bit bewildered by the amount of people reading the discussion strand i started named 'Jobs in GIS'. It became quite obvious people were searching this in an attempt to find job ads, but were not moved enough to leave a posting. I recieved a reply from Baldlygo who suggested a new discussion strand regarding the lack of recognition of GIS in archaeology. The Americans are way ahead of us on this one.
Come on, you are reading this in search of a job. You must have an opinion!Hello again
Long time still no job, although i did give in and stopped looking for a while. It seems to me that at last count over 320 people had read this discussion strand and a high proportion had also clicked to read the discussion about MapInfo or MapPoint. This suggests there are lots of people who are interested in GIS and archaeology. Does anyone reading this wish to discuss the lack of relationship between GIS and archaeology? Or maybe someone reading has a bit of good advice. Please jot down your thoughts.
Diana | | | |
| | dianah
New Member
Posts:12
| | 02 Feb 2005 09:19 AM | | | Hello Again Badlygo
39 people have currently read this, perhaps looking for information, but not passed comments on.
I have to agree that yes, GIS software tools are very expensive. I only have experience of MapInfo, and I beleieve a licence costs in the region of £1000. Could anyone inform me of other systems and costs? I have not had any dealings with GRASS but will have a look at it.
There are various GIS UAD projects around the UK, Cambridge, Canterbury and Norfolk. UAD's show precise locations of events and monuments for all mannor of reasons. All archaeological site reports should be available for the public if requested. It is perhaps a bit of a risk and may attract unscrupulous metal detectorists and treasure hunters but the fact is its a shared past. We sadly have to rely on morals and laws/acts to protect sites and finds. GIS is a fantasic way of recording data and can be used by researchers, students and planning officals. It can be a 'one stop shop' of information.
Practical use for the academic world of history and/ or archaeology is huge. With correct SQL's thematic maps and graphs can be produced showing distribution, dispersal, quantities, presence and absence. The trick is to understand how to interogate the data.
Surely this is more then helpful to the archaeological world?
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| mary
New Member
Posts:0
| | 02 Mar 2005 11:56 AM | | | Hi Dianah
I'm one of the people who've been reading this discussion and not commenting, mainly because I know very little about GIS and I'm curious to find out more. So you're lack of replies might be down to a lack knowledge rather than a lack opinion or interest.
My lack of knowledge does rather suggest that GIS is undervalued as it was hardly touched on as a topic in my degree. But the fact that there is some discussion and information about GIS on this website at least means that there is more interest and perhaps its value is begining to be recognised. | | | |
| dianah
New Member
Posts:12
| | 02 Mar 2005 12:42 PM | | | Hi Mary
Thank-you very much for your comments. You must have been able to find out quite a bit about GIS from this website, if you still have some questions maybe we can help here.
I am guessing you have completed an archaeology degree, where GIS was hardly touched on, I have to agree with you. We covered GPS but not GIS. Many people see it as a software package and dont fully understand its applications or advantages.
I too hope that through discussion and the presence of website such as this, GIS is starting to be recognised far more widely. | | | |
| SteveW
Advanced Member
Posts:662
| | 02 Mar 2005 01:41 PM | | | I too completed an archaeology degree (classical archaeology), without barely a nod toward new technologies. This prompted me to submit a dissertation on the subject and to eventually set up this site.
It is encouraging to find a lot of interest, however from my experience in running the site, it is nigh on impossible to get professional archaeologists with any practical experience with GIS to contribute any articles, guides, or 'how tos'.
With the release of FISH (new heritage data standards) I expect there to be a lot more interest soon, particularly in the UK.
Maybe threads such as this might prompt someone with experience to share their knowledge. I've been keen to explore some web-based GIS for some time and when I find some appropriate server components or controls I'll be looking into plugging in some of the geo-referenced data that already exists in the Online Archaeology database.
One thing to bear in mind is that in little over a year there are now 72 forum members and over 150 site members, some of whom have already contributed widely.
cheers,
Steve White | | | |
| Bob
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Posts:3
| | 03 Mar 2005 10:47 PM | | | Steve,
Here's my take on the subject, as a former archaeologists turned GIS software documentation writer and archaeology user group organizer for ESRI.
At least in the USA, GIS is becoming a mainstream archaeology tool. Heritage and land-management agencies are increasingly using GIS to manage archaeological site, archaeological survey area, and historic structure information. University professors are beginning to bring GIS into the archaeology curriculum, although in most places anthropology students take GIS courses offered by other departments with longer histories of GIS use (for example, Geography, Forestry, or Geology). GIS software training is also available through the ESRI Virtual Campus (http://campus.esri.com); some of the courses and modules there are free. Private contract archaeology firms often have a person, or department, to do GIS work for their projects. This work includes compiling base data for survey projects, modeling high and low probability areas for sites (or site exposure), managing field work, and reporting results.
I have compiled a number of pages of pertaining to GIS and archaeology. The start page, www.esri.com/archaeology is a clearinghouse of GIS/archaeological information. Also, the ESRI Archaeology Discussion Forum http://forums.esri.com/forums.asp?c=87 is a resource for GIS-using archaeologists to exchange ideas and assistance.
As far as trends go, I'd say that inputting data into GIS, or linking GIS data on sites and surveys to existing State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) databases is an ongoing process that is widespread, and becoming the norm. In the USA, the states of NM, AZ, WY, CO, WI, IA, NC, are NJ good examples; international examples include the Irish Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, and the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS)). Sample links at: http://www.esri.com/industries/archaeology/organizations.html
In the research field, site-level GIS is increasingly being used. There are some links to examples on the same page (Pukara, Chamak Pacha, Kalendris sites), as well as at:
http://gis.esri.com/library/userconf/proc04/docs/pap1736.pdf and
http://gis.esri.com/library/userconf/proc04/docs/pap2025.pdf
For a broad sampling of recent applications of GIS in archaeology, see the ESRI User Conference papers archives (archaeology became it's own track in 2004):
http://gis.esri.com/library/userconf/proc04/track.html#Archaeology
http://gis.esri.com/library/userconf/proc03/track.html#Ecology,%20Archaeology,%20and%20Conservation
http://gis.esri.com/library/userconf/proc02/track.html#Ecology,%20Archaeology,%20and%20Conservation
Museums and heritage management organizations are using the internet and internet map servers to open up archaeological and historic preservation GIS data on the web, with detailed versions for research/trusted users and generalized versions for planners/the general public (I-Site in Iowa for example, or Wisconsin: http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/spring02articles/wisconsins.html or, in Egypt: http://www.cofc.edu/olgis/olgissearch.html).
Academic and private cultural resource management archaeologists are increasingly turning to GIS for field data recording, either using handheld computers and ArcPad, or ArcView running on a tablet PC or laptop. This can be (and is being) done for survey and excavation work (see http://gis.esri.com/library/userconf/proc04/docs/pap1736.pdf and http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~nico/research/index.htm).
The technology development curve is going to be making this easier and more common in the near future. Aide from the improving power/cost ratio of computer hardware, the GIS technology to support this is becoming more accessible.
I'd also say that, linked to the field recording of GIS data, there is a trend to more integration (data-fusion) of remote-sensing (high and low altitude aerial photography, satellite imagery), geophysical | | | |
| AntArch
New Member
Posts:19
| | 02 Apr 2005 02:13 PM | | | OK. Fair cop. I'm one of those who has been promising a GIS article for a fair while. I have been using GIS since the early 90s and attempting to apply it within archaeology from about the same time.
You're right about the expense of GIS software but in my experience most people don't use the the expensive elements for spatial analysis or spatial statistics. Rather GIS tends to be employed for creating map overlays and other operational functions (for example SQL queries of layers (or themes/coverages etc). e.g show me all the post holes, bronze age features etc. etc.) This level of functionality is technically trivial and is available through a number of freebie GIS applications (for example arcexplorer from ESRI). So GIS doesn't have to be an expensive option. In the near future more and more GIS applications will be thin-client. This means that the GIS analysis engine is located on a server and a user can access the data over the web without the need for (expensive?) specialist software at the client end. This would normally mean that the full complement of analysis tools are not available to the user, but as I've already mentioned most archaeologists dont use them (at the moment at least). For those that do need the full grunt then a GIS workstation is the only option.
However, there are a number of more profound aspects relating to GIS:
GIS is a tool and as such is only as good as the data that is fed into it. I believe that without a corpus of comparable high quality data GIS applications will continue to flounder or only be used within the planning process. So we need to review the way both spatial and attribute data is collected and analysed. This is particualry important for context recording. Further, landscape archaeological applications are continuing to grow and we need to find mechanism to bridge the gap between data sets collected at different scales. Ideally one would like to collectively query excavation and landscape data within a single environment. This problem is exacerbated when people use different recording systems to different standards.
High quality data that can be used for GIS analysis should be collected irrespective as to wether the contractual unit or the curatorial body is going to use it. As a profession we have a strong research component and if the data that we collect (destructively) can not be effectively articulated by researchers or the public then I believe we are failing in our duty of care. Although archaeologists are successful in this in many areas it is still not easy to access raw datasets in a digital format for re-interpretation purposes.
So yes GIS is under-valued. Universities do not offer good quality training courses on the use of GIS or on the collection, management and articulation of GIS data. There are few, if any, exemplar datasets available which student or teachers could use to explain these concepts. The contractual situation seems to re-inforce that with many units not having access to the technologies or each unit simply re-inventing the wheel. As Steve mentioned fish and some of the other standards organisation are addressing a number of these issues. However, the results of these initiatives have yet to filter through to the average person.
On the plus side. More and more people are becoming exposed to the benefits of GIS technology. So..... Hopefully the pressure can be applied by the end-users who expect archaeological data to be collected, managed and disseminated in this manner.
Sorry about any element of rantiness. But it is a friday
Ant | | | |
| SteveW
Advanced Member
Posts:662
| | 03 Apr 2005 01:12 PM | | | Bob -
Thanks for those details and welcome to the forums.
I guess this underlines Dianah's original post here - 'The Americans are way ahead of us on this one'.
I'll take a closer look at all of those links you supplied - I've had a quick glance and saw resources for free datasets. They are mainly for the US, do you know of any for the UK? Also, in case I miss it do you have any articles relating to standards?
regards,
Steve White | | | |
| Bob
New Member
Posts:3
| | 03 Apr 2005 04:50 PM | | | Steve,
Archaeological data is often closely held; in the US it is typically not legal to publicly release site location information because of the risk of looting. The information that is publicly available is usually about historic places, such as buildings or battlefields.
I'm not as sure about the laws in the UK.
The Irish heritage site that I pointed to could be a source. There are also some Heritage mapping services (though I doubt they offer data for download) CANMORE/CANMAP in Scotland; Coflein in Wales (http://www.rcahmw.gov.uk/aboutus.shtml) and I believe English Heritage has or is working on a similar public mapping project.
In the US there is much more free basemap data publicly available because of differences in US and UK copyright law and the governments' different approaches to cost recovery.
There is free SRTM global terrain data available from the University of Maryland (http://glcf.umiacs.umd.edu/data/srtm/) or the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/).
Bob
Bob Booth
ESRI Software Documentation
Archaeology User Interest Group Coordinator
www.esri.com/archaeology
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| SteveW
Advanced Member
Posts:662
| | 03 Apr 2005 05:12 PM | | | Bob -
OK thanks.
Since I only want the data to test the software I suppose it doesn't have to represent an identifiable location.
My personal stance is that I believe archaeological data should be freely available, although I recognise that it is naive to think this won't result in widespread looting.
Once I get to grips with some of the software I'll fire off a request or two to EH - I won't be using the data for any financial reward so I'll see what happens.
regards,
Steve White | | | |
| AntArch
New Member
Posts:19
| | 03 Apr 2005 05:19 PM | | | Steve,
If you want data then the best bet is the ADS? If it's for testing give us an idea of what type of data you want and what formats you would prefer and I'll see what I can do.
For example Bob mentioned the SRTM data. I have the full dataset for the UK which has beenpost-processed into one file and holefilled which I'd be happy to pass on.
Could be the start of a new thread........
Ant | | | |
| SteveW
Advanced Member
Posts:662
| | 03 Apr 2005 05:24 PM | | | Great, thanks Ant. I'll contact you off-line when I have some time and will start a new thread if need be. | | | |
| Wowbagger
New Member
Posts:2
| | 10 Apr 2005 01:07 PM | | quote:
Originally posted by Snooks
I am in a key IT position in one of the major contractors in the UK. not saying which....
I can tell you that I have not seen GIS used in commercial archaeology
I'm in a key archaeological position with one of the major consultancies and I probably use GIS on every project I work on. It's no more time consuming to analyse your data with GIS than using any of the other methods, and as AntArch said, the software doesn't have to cost the earth either.
I'm not sure why people get such a bee in their bonnet over the relative costs of using GIS in archaeology, when many units are willing to fork out tons of money in software and training costs for AutoCAD, so that someone can spend hours putting dots on a map.
Wowbagger
Soft, strong and infinitely prolonged | | | |
| eggbasket
New Member
Posts:1
| | 10 Jul 2005 09:26 AM | | | I have worked for several medium-sized field units that used GIS on most projects. Particularly for larger excavations it proved a major saving in time and effort, and therefore money, to employ GIS as a basic analytical tool. The first time I saw it used was in 1994 and I have not worked without it since then.
Cheers,
Eggbasket | | | |
| AntArch
New Member
Posts:19
| | 10 Jul 2005 09:32 AM | | | Eggbasket and Wowbagger,
How do you deposit your digital data?
AntArch | | | |
| digimon
New Member
Posts:1
| | 10 Aug 2005 12:35 PM | | | It is probably true that GIS isn't widely used on sites as part of or even for post excavation analysis, but I would suggest that excavation doesn’t reflect the whole scope of contracting archaeology.
As a key minnow in the sea of archaeology, I have been using GIS in a large number of projects (mainly commercial) since 1997. This has included not only putting "dots on maps" (and counting 'em), but AP and historic map rectification, processing and analysing topo survey and excavation data, and as a tool in the management of excavations.
GIS can and does offer savings, not only in consultancy, but also in post excavation analysis and reporting. We are not talking high end stuff but use of the simple GIS functions (many?, how much?, where?) and mapping. These are vital elements of any report and GIS can reduce time taken and therefore cost.
This is the attraction of GIS, in a commercial world, such savings can give units a commercial edge and help in winning tenders. Reports and jobs will come in and go out quicker as a result.
While I accept there can be moderate risks and outlays, many units routinely produce digital data (site survey data, digitised field drawings, tables of contexts, finds and samples) but these are largely only brought together in a non-digital environment (on, in and around the directors desk or in the final report).
I would suggest that the use of CAD was a case of industry sneezes, we catch the cold. Dwgs are still industrial standard for engineering and construction. However as the use of GIS is growing these sectors, many of the larger clients are now not worried by GIS (a few require compatible output and some actively encourage its use). Wider use of GIS in industry is likely to lead to wider use in archaeology.
Other factors such as the cost of GIS software falling (or becoming an acceptable outlay), the increasing ease of use of this software, the falling cost of computers, the increased production of digital data is likely to see the use of GIS in archaeology will grow in the next few years.
Don’t worry, this use will create a whole raft of problems and issues for use to get depressed and moan about.
Archaeologists also need to be taught GIS to see the potentials and pitfalls, even if they don’t use the softfware themselves. For example, I have been led to believe that radiocarbon dates are useful, but don’t know how to produce one myself.
Digimon | | | |
| Wowbagger
New Member
Posts:2
| | 10 Nov 2005 01:21 PM | | | Hello Antarch. Do you mean what do we do with it when we've finished with it (ie send it to the appropriate HER), or how do we archive it?
Soft, strong and infinitely prolonged | | | |
| AntArch
New Member
Posts:19
| | 10 Nov 2005 02:03 PM | | | Hi Wowbagger,
Both would be nice. I think it would be useful to know how those who collect digital data are actually dealing with its curation both internally and esternally.
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| Sakura
New Member
Posts:2
| | 01 Nov 2006 01:43 PM | | |
Hi
I'm currently in my 2nd year of studying Egyptian archaeology and am interested in how GIS is used in archaeology and so looked around for information on it and found this forum link.
I came to my course with an ICT A level and therefore have always been interested in how computers were/are used in my subject.
Personally i have been finding that my asking about doing a module which is named computer applications or GIS has been met with a kind of "your weird" look and response. They seem to just let me get on with it but at the same time think im strange. I've come to the conclusion that the majority of archaeologists see computing in archaeology as something they need to get round to finding out about but cant be bothered at the moment. Obviously this majority excludes the people who have posted above. Even my lecturer who taught me about computer applications looked at me weird when he found out that i did Egyptian archaeology. Is it even more rare to find an Egyptologist interested in GIS???
Ive been extremely confused by this attitude as i am extremely interested in the benefits all computer programs not just GIS can have on archaeology. | | | |
| SteveW
Advanced Member
Posts:662
| | 01 Nov 2006 02:09 PM | | | Hi Sakura - welcome to the forums.
Your frustration is something I also felt when studying my Ancient History & Classical Archaeology degree. It let me to abandon looking for a job in archaeology because I wanted to first hone my IT skills. Further down the road, the frustration inspired me to set up the main site and these forums.
I've found that there are a lot of GIS related projects going on in archaeology, and things aren't as bad as they seem. There's also a lot going on in visualisation techniques and artefact scanning, although I think VRML seems to be on the decline.
As part of the Online Archaeology site I want to create some kind of software review module so people can air their thoughts about particular GIS packages. Part of the reluctance in using these systems is perhaps due to their complexity.
Anyway, best of luck and keep posting.
Steve White | | | |
| Sakura
New Member
Posts:2
| | 01 Nov 2006 05:56 PM | | |
I'm definately interested in keeping in archaeology and computing was the way I'd like to go.
I'd certainly be very interested in the new section for trying out GIS packages as the only package that I've used is Idrisi and I am seriously hoping that there are better packages out there because if not I am able to understand why people are put off by the complexity of it.
I've been reading through the posts and looking up the different packages so I'd like to thank you all for giving me that extra information to get me started.
I was wondering though if any of you know any sources for projects in Egypt that use GIS systems or reconstruction techniques?
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| mally
New Member
Posts:1
| | 05 Jan 2007 04:30 PM | | There are at least a couple of good projects in Egyptian Archaeology at the moment. Follow these links.....
http://www.eais.org.eg/ (The EAIS are currently looking for students of Egyptian Archaeology to volunteer with them...in Egypt...)
http://www.cofc.edu/olgis/
The Giza Plateau Mapping project is running a huge GIS, check out the AERA online journal for articles about their work.
quote:
Originally posted by Sakura
I'm definately interested in keeping in archaeology and computing was the way I'd like to go.
I'd certainly be very interested in the new section for trying out GIS packages as the only package that I've used is Idrisi and I am seriously hoping that there are better packages out there because if not I am able to understand why people are put off by the complexity of it.
I've been reading through the posts and looking up the different packages so I'd like to thank you all for giving me that extra information to get me started.
I was wondering though if any of you know any sources for projects in Egypt that use GIS systems or reconstruction techniques?
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| Gazz
New Member
Posts:0
| | 01 Jun 2007 01:02 PM | | | GIS is starting to come through in archaeology (if you look in the right places!) SMRs are slowly stumbling towards converting to HERs using GIS. After working in Wales as a Curatorial Archaeologist I spent 90% of my time using GIS (mapinfo) for planning decisions.
Archaeological Units however...
L-P archaeology make good use of GIS, I come from the westcountry and I am currently taking training in GIS.
the units in the westcountry (excluding wessex) are small scale- no more than 10 staff- one I have worked for use graphical software to digitise plans, if i return in september, I hope to spread GIS to the smaller units.
Money is a big problem GRASS GIS initially seems like the great answer free, opensource - but a bit tricky to get your head round at first if you come from a windows perspective; HOWEVER QGIS could be the answer! a windows fronted working on a Unix backend! allowing a more user friendly appearance.
A company I have worked for 2 yaers has show interest...Wish me luck!
As a GIS person - we need to educate employers show them examples of work and maybe include them in a experimentary study at first to get them on board
Any thoughts? | | | |
| AntArch
New Member
Posts:19
| | 01 Jun 2007 01:37 PM | | | Gazz,
You could also try manifold GIS. Has a very good rep and is astoundingly cheap
www.manifold.net
Ant | | | |
| dianah
New Member
Posts:12
| | 01 Jul 2007 12:42 PM | |  Hello again!
Its been 2 years since i suggested GIS was undervalued in Archaeology. Since then i have left archaeology (regretably), worked in local government maintaining a GIS database (yawn!), worked as a supply lecturer in GIS MapInfo at a local college and completed compliation of the Canterbury UAD (Urban Archaeology Database) and am now a primary school teacher! How things change.
What hasn't changed is my passion for archaeolgy and a desire to work with GIS. The UAD project i have recently completed, which has apparently now been launched,is fantasic (even if i do say so myself  ). I still search through pages looking for a suitable job, although now more half heartedly. I am delighted how many people have checked this string and commented and helped others. You never know maybe next year i'll be back in GIS, if i can ever find that perfect job!!
Happy and prosperous new year to you all.
x | | | |
| SteveW
Advanced Member
Posts:662
| | 01 Sep 2007 01:37 PM | | | Diana, do you have a URL for the Canterbury UAD? Is it available online?
thanks
Steve White | | | |
| dianah
New Member
Posts:12
| | 01 Nov 2007 09:40 PM | | | Hi Steve
I believe Canterbury City Council is planning to launch it (well part of it) over the internet sometime this summer. Sorry i don't have more information. I'll let you know if and when i hear anything.
x | | | |
| Baldlygo
New Member
Posts:60
| | 25 Apr 2008 09:01 PM | | | OK Dianah - here are my top 4 for starters:-
1) Making practical use of GIS is quite a big subject to get one's head around.
2) The main industry standard software tools are very expensive.
3) Free alternative (GRASS) is very difficult to install, run and understand.
4) The actual location of a lot of archeology in the landscape in kept secret these days. | | | |
| Trevor
New Member
Posts:1
| | 25 Apr 2008 09:01 PM | | | Hi Dianah,
Interesting topic, I have dipped in to it before without commenting so apologies for that. I feel that I'm coming to this from a different angle from other repondents who all appear to be archaeologists as I have been using GIS for 10 years and previous to that was a cartographer, so, I guess, spatial data is my thing. I'll briefly explain my interest.
At Christmas I met a relation for the first time and discovered he was an archaeologist. Having an interest in the subject we got talking and, seeing GIS as a perfect tool for his job, asked how much it was used. I have to say that the response of virtualy nil surprised me a little. Knowing GIS, I would have thought it the perfect tool for recording archaeology, allowing 3D as well as 2D capture of information which would surely aid the understanding of sites and their sequence.
Hence my searching on the web and finding this forum. So the question that I am trying to answer is why isn't GIS used when it (to me) appears to be the perfect tool. When I'm told about mapping a golf course with a tape I have to think why not use GIS/GPS and aerial photography, with resolution as good as 12.5cms these days, it would be so much quicker and better.
This is where you lot come in.....why is it not used? I see that there are GIS courses for archaeologist are they popular? and what is happening to people who go on them?. Is the problem lack of understanding or lack of resources. Do archaeologist have to bid for jobs and so cut margins too fine to allow GIS equipment/techniques too be used? Wouldn't some investment now pay dividends in the long term in terms of storage, analysis replicability etc. the possibilities are endless so WHY IS IT NOT USED!! Heck, you could even put information from other people together and build up landscapes or pull in other info to overlay and determine are the pyramids really a model of Orion etc etc, could be really exciting stuff.
Over to you.
Is there enough work and interest out there for say a freelancer with the equipment to be employed, as and when required, by archaeologists in the same way that Time Team uses ESRIUK for there GIS bits. Is this where my future lies perhaps?
I must agree with AntArch regarding data. In my job a lot of my time is wasted chasing, matching and manipulating poor data where people don't understand that systems and hardware come and go but data is there for life. It has to be captured at the finest resolution possible and, if required, can be resampled to a lower resolution at a later date.
Hope we can get some good discussion going here.
Regards
Trevor | | | |
| SteveW
Advanced Member
Posts:662
| | 25 Apr 2008 09:01 PM | | | Personally, I think archaeology is beginning to recognise the value of GIS. Standards have to be agreed first though. As the Dublin Core (http://dublincore.org) brought standards to data storage, so FISH (http://www.fish-forum.info) seeks to standardise the methods of data exchange between heritage institutions. Once datasets can operate within an agreed format technology usually drives things forward - think about how Web Services have revolutionised data exchange between corporate legacy systems.
I have never used a GIS package. I work as an internet programmer and spend a lot of time coding data exhange processes, which MUST conform to standards. The same has to apply to archaeological data.
To me GIS in archaeology would server two functions:
1) to help organise spatial data for sites/heritage management
2) to help with the interpretation of archaeological data
Steve White | | | |
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